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简繁字库

偶然发现,思源字体的繁体字库文件,无法显示一些简体字。而思源的简体文件,似乎可以显示全部的繁体字?于是把常用的字体文件拆开,看看分别都能涵盖多少简繁汉字。

直接说结论:

  • 简体字的字体,如「思源简体」,包含了中国大陆 GB18030-2000 编码标准的全部汉字,是能够同时显示几乎所有的常用繁体字的,因为这个 GB18030 标准,也涵盖了所有的早期台湾 big5 编码的繁体字;
  • 反之,通常专门的「繁體 / 正體」字体,如「思源繁體」,很多简体字是不能显示的。因为相关的台湾汉字编码 CNS11643-1986(第 1 & 2 版面),只能覆盖 70% 的常用简体字。

首先,在最常用的几个字体中,

  • 微软雅黑 和 思源简体 基本一致
  • 思源繁体 和 思源香港 基本一致

两两之间的差别,只是少许生僻字、异体字、以及历史遗留的制作中文编码时的重复或疏忽。具体差别的内容,放在文末了。所以,这里主要对比「思源简体」和「思源繁体」,就可以了。

在思源字体 CJK 的说明文件里,写出了不同国家字体文件的字符数量,和需要支持的标准。可以看到,简中字体文件打包的字符,比繁中多了一万多个(这里的 Glyphs 不仅是中文,也包括西文、特殊符号、甚至一些 emoji)。

简中字体需要支持的标准,主要是

  • 大陆 2000 年颁布的《GB18030 标准简体中文字符集》,包含 27,533 个汉字。当然,是否能做到 100% 符合,思源的设计方也表示,编码标准比较复杂,不好说……
  • 2013 年颁布的《通用规范汉字表》,包含 8105 个汉字。其中有 199 个,不在 GB18030 的范围内。

繁体字体需要支持的标准,主要包括

  • 台湾 1986 年颁布的《CNS11643 通用汉字标准交换码》,包括 13051 个汉字,和早年的「big5 大五码」相同。最初只有 1 2 两个字面(Panel),后来逐渐扩展,现在 1~7 字面都已经被 ISO 纳入 Unicode 体系,但思源繁体里,只支持 1 2 字面。
  • HKSCS 香港增补字符集》,是香港从 1995 年开始,对台湾 big5 编码的补充,到 2016 年,收录汉字 5033 个。

从台湾的官网上,可以下载到目前最新的 CNS11643 – Unicode 之间的对应情况;大陆这边没有找到类似的官网资料,搜到的几个 GB18030 – Unicode 编码表,都是 PDF 格式(掀桌……)。但可以在 python 里把字符 encode,得到相应的编码,也可以变相确认,某个字符是否在某个编码里。

>>> print('劍'.encode('gb18030'))
b'\x84\xa6'
>>> print('劍'.encode('gb2312'))
报错
>>> print('劍'.encode('big5'))
b'\xbcC'
>>> print('劍'.encode('raw_unicode_escape'))
b'\\u528d'

实测结果,所有的 13053 个繁体 big5 汉字,也就是台湾最初规定的,最常用的繁体字,都包含在大陆的 GB18030 编码,也包含在思源简体的字体文件里。包含在思源繁体,而不在思源简体中的汉字,只有 1711 个(详见文末,——如果你觉得其中哪个字不够生僻,那么通常是历史遗留下来的编码重复、或者异体字。譬如,现在 Unicode 里,至少有 10 个各种形态的「龟」字了。

  • 简体「龟」 – U+9F9F、U+2EF2、U+2EF3
  • 繁体「龜」 – U+9F9C、U+2EF1、U+2FD4、U+F907、U+F908、U+FACE
  • 日文「亀」 – U+4E80
  • 还有 emoji 的 🐢 U+1F422 、埃及象形文的 𓆉 U+13189

相对的,包含在思源简体,而不在思源繁体中的汉字,有 11856 个之多。这其中,包括了非常多的常用简体字。以大陆最常用的 6763 个汉字(也就是 1980 年大陆发布的 GB2132 汉字编码集)为例。在这些汉字当中:

  • 包含在 1986 年台湾 big5 编码中的汉字:4383 个
  • 没有被 big5 收录,但是包含在「思源繁体」中的:482 个
  • 「思源繁体」中也不存在的:1898 个

具体字符清单见文末。可以看到,思源繁体字库中,不能显示的常用简体字,接近 30%,尤其是部首本身就有简繁体之分的,如:讠纟艹饣钅车马鱼鸟页……使用了这些简体字部首的字,有很大概率,在繁体字库里无法显示。

当然,这样的差异,不一定代表着台湾那边的汉字编码工作不力、或者对简体字的傲慢。无论是 GB18030 还是 CNS11643,都早已有了更新更全面的版本,在 CNS11643 2004 年的版本中,包含了 GB2312 的全部 6763 个汉字,而整个思源简体的三万多字符,也只有 500 多个不在其中。所以,还是一些神秘的历史差异,导致——

  • 简体字体支持大陆 2000 年的标准,而
  • 繁体字体只支持台湾 1986 年的标准

但目前我们在网上浏览,或者文字排版时,如果用统一的字体,且需要考虑简繁体的兼容性的话,还是使用满足 GB18030 的 “简体” 字库吧。


思源字体(黑体宋体)在 github 上的原始下载版本,分成了

  • Variable OTCs – 五个地区的合集(中国、台湾、香港、日本、韩国)
  • Language-specific Variable Fonts – 不同语言的合集
  • Region-specific Subset Variable Fonts – 适配不同地区的版本

本文之前分析的,都是 Region-specific 版本之间的区别。而更大一级的 Language-specific 的中文字体,无论是简体繁体,都收录了四万多个字符,大约是大陆和台湾编码标准的合集,甚至更多,推荐大家去使用这个。但 Github 的界面流程,对于非专业人士来说,还是过于复杂了。而 Google Fonts 上提供的下载版本,就只有 Region-specific 的版本。


附——

同时出现在 GB2312,和台湾 big5 编码中的汉字:4383 个

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出现在 GB2312,没有被 big5 收录,但是包含在「思源繁体」中的:482 个

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出现在 GB2312,但「思源繁体」中不存在的常用简体字:1898 个

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思源繁體 比 思源简体 多的中文字符,1711 个

龜懶濫兩閭列烈例杻𠀡𠀾𠁆𠁎𠁨𠂆𠂊𠂔𠃊𠃋𠃍𠃑𠃮𠄌𠄎𠄘𠆤𠆩𠆫𠇁𠇔𠇲𠈄𠈌𠈔𠈹𠉛𠉴𠉵𠊙𠊞𠊠𠊷𠊿𠋀𠋥𠌊𠌥𠍁𠍅𠍆𠍇𠍾𠍿𠎀𠎠𠎧𠎵𠏉𠏋𠏵𠏼𠐓𠐔𠐟𠑥𠒇𠒎𠒑𠒒𠒣𠓗𠓼𠓾𠕇𠖎𠖥𠖳𠗃𠗊𠗐𠗕𠗟𠗠𠗫𠘑𠘕𠘙𠘚𠘰𠙖𠜎𠜱𠝹𠠬𠡳𠣕𠤖𠤣𠥔𠥹𠧧𠨑𠩐𠩯𠪊𠪴𠫂𠫍𠬍𠮏𠮟𠮨𠮩𠮿𠯆𠯋𠯢𠯫𠯻𠯿𠰋𠰍𠰠𠰴𠰺𠰻𠱁𠱂𠱃𠱓𠱥𠱷𠱸𠱼𠲍𠲖𠲜𠲵𠲸𠳏𠳓𠳔𠳕𠳖𠳝𠳭𠳿𠴕𠴨𠴱𠴲𠵆𠵇𠵈𠵉𠵌𠵍𠵎𠵯𠵱𠵴𠵼𠵾𠵿𠶖𠶜𠶧𠶲𠷈𠸄𠸉𠸊𠸍𠸎𠸏𠸐𠸑𠸖𠸝𠹌𠹭𠹳𠹵𠹶𠹷𠹸𠹹𠹺𠹻𠺌𠺖𠺘𠺝𠺢𠺪𠺫𠺬𠺶𠻗𠻘𠻝𠻸𠻹𠻺𠻻𠼝𠼦𠼭𠼮𠼰𠼱𠼻𠽌𠽤𠾍𠾐𠾭𠾴𠾵𠾶𠾼𠿟𠿪𠿫𠿬𠿭𡀔𡀝𡀞𡁏𡁜𡁯𡁵𡁶𡁷𡁸𡁻𡂈𡂖𡂝𡂴𡂿𡃀𡃁𡃇𡃈𡃉𡃏𡃓𡃤𡃴𡃵𡃶𡄯𡄻𡄽𡅅𡅈𡅏𡆀𡆇𡇙𡈼𡉏𡉼𡊨𡊩𡊰𡋣𡋾𡌂𡌃𡌄𡌅𡌶𡌺𡍵𡍶𡎎𡎘𡎜𡏅𡏆𡏭𡏾𡐖𡐤𡐿𡑒𡑔𡑕𡒊𡒗𡒶𡓨𡓽𡕷𡖂𡖖𡘊𡘓𡘙𡘾𡙡𡚒𡚸𡚺𡛀𡛁𡛂𡛓𡛕𡛟𡛦𡛧𡛨𡛺𡛻𡛼𡛾𡜍𡜐𡜦𡜺𡜻𡜼𡝗𡝬𡝭𡝮𡝯𡝰𡝱𡝳𡝴𡞫𡞰𡞱𡞲𡞳𡞴𡞵𡟃𡟇𡟙𡟚𡟛𡟜𡟟𡟯𡟵𡟶𡟸𡟹𡟺𡟻𡟼𡠠𡠨𡠩𡠪𡠭𡠹𡠺𡠻𡡀𡡅𡡒𡡞𡡡𡡢𡡣𡡤𡡷𡡻𡢃𡢄𡢅𡢞𡢟𡢠𡢡𡢢𡢾𡢿𡣑𡣖𡣗𡣘𡣙𡣺𡤃𡤄𡤅𡤐𡤑𡤒𡤕𡤜𡤢𡤧𡤻𡥄𡥘𡥪𡥼𡦀𡦃𡦈𡦖𡧛𡧳𡨭𡨴𡩅𡩋𡩣𡭄𡯁𡯂𡰪𡱰𡲢𡲥𡲬𡵆𡵓𡵞𡶐𡶶𡶺𡷊𡷑𡷫𡷹𡸜𡸣𡸷𡸽𡺉𡺤𡺨𡻈𡻕𡼏𡼕𡽪𡾞𡾡𡿨𢁅𢁉𢁾𢂚𢃇𢃼𢄪𢅛𢅳𢅺𢆡𢇁𢇃𢈈𢉼𢌡𢌥𢎽𢏐𢏗𢏺𢑥𢑱𢒋𢒑𢒰𢒼𢓁𢓉𢓌𢓭𢔓𢔛𢔰𢕔𢖍𢖯𢖾𢘛𢘜𢘫𢙨𢙺𢚖𢚘𢛴𢛵𢛶𢜒𢜔𢜛𢜟𢜪𢝵𢞁𢞖𢞴𢞵𢟍𢠃𢡟𢡠𢡱𢢭𢣁𢣷𢤦𢤹𢥏𢥧𢥫𢦀𢦓𢩦𢫏𢫕𢫦𢫨𢬎𢬢𢬿𢭃𢭪𢯊𢯎𢰦𢰧𢰸𢱌𢱑𢱕𢱢𢲈𢲛𢲡𢲩𢲲𢲷𢳂𢳆𢳉𢴇𢴈𢴒𢵄𢵌𢵧𢶍𢶕𢶠𢶣𢶤𢶷𢷮𢸍𢸶𢹂𢹸𢺋𢺳𢻯𢽴𢿌𢿣𣀳𣁄𣁋𣁦𣁽𣁾𣂎𣂷𣂼𣃚𣄃𣄽𣅽𣆂𣆤𣆥𣆳𣇈𣇉𣇪𣇷𣇸𣇹𣈏𣈥𣈯𣈱𣈲𣈳𣈴𣉖𣉞𣉢𣊁𣊉𣊊𣊫𣊬𣊭𣋒𣋠𣋡𣌀𣌊𣌟𣎴𣏌𣏞𣏦𣏴𣏵𣏹𣏺𣏾𣐀𣐿𣑐𣑯𣑲𣓥𣔙𣔰𣕑𣕚𣕧𣖕𣖙𣖜𣖻𣗍𣗎𣗏𣗳𣘀𣘗𣘚𣘼𣙀𣙙𣙟𣙷𣚎𣚞𣚦𣚭𣚺𣛟𣛮𣜃𣜖𣜠𣜭𣜯𣜿𣝦𣞁𣞢𣞼𣟂𣟕𣟖𣟗𣠺𣧂𣪧𣫛𣫮𣫺𣬚𣭚𣱣𣲙𣲚𣲛𣲵𣲷𣳇𣳈𣳉𣳼𣳽𣳾𣳿𣵀𣵛𣵾𣶏𣶶𣶷𣶸𣶹𣶺𣶻𣶼𣶽𣷣𣷸𣸆𣸑𣸬𣸭𣸮𣸯𣸰𣸱𣸹𣺈𣺉𣺊𣺋𣺹𣺿𣻗𣻷𣻸𣻹𣻺𣻻𣻼𣼵𣽁𣽊𣽡𣽿𣾀𣾁𣾂𣾏𣾴𣾷𣿀𣿅𣿫𣿬𣿭𣿮𣿯𣿰𤀑𤀹𤀺𤀻𤀼𤀽𤁗𤂅𤂋𤂌𤂍𤂑𤃉𤃡𤃬𤄄𤄏𤄙𤄿𤅀𤅄𤅎𤅕𤅖𤅗𤅜𤅟𤅡𤅷𤅺𤆣𤆤𤆥𤆬𤆵𤇍𤇢𤇼𤈛𤉋𤉖𤉙𤉶𤉷𤉸𤊄𤊓𤊕𤊥𤊿𤋁𤋉𤋊𤋮𤋺𤌍𤌚𤌴𤍈𤍢𤍣𤍤𤍥𤎌𤎖𤎜𤎽𤏁𤏩𤏪𤏲𤏸𤐄𤐵𤐶𤑚𤑛𤑳𤒇𤒈𤒹𤒼𤓎𤓓𤓖𤔅𤔡𤕸𤗈𤘘𤘪𤙥𤙴𤚗𤛔𤜆𤜥𤜯𤞏𤟠𤠒𤠣𤢂𤣰𤣱𤣲𤣳𤣻𤣿𤤀𤤁𤤌𤤖𤤗𤤙𤤯𤤳𤤴𤤾𤤿𤥀𤥁𤥂𤥃𤥢𤥣𤥴𤥵𤥶𤥻𤥿𤦂𤦈𤦉𤦊𤦋𤦌𤦍𤦎𤦏𤦔𤦤𤦧𤦩𤦫𤦬𤦭𤦷𤦸𤦹𤦺𤦻𤧅𤧐𤧚𤧞𤧟𤧣𤧥𤧬𤧭𤧶𤧷𤧸𤧹𤧻𤨎𤨒𤨓𤨕𤨡𤨢𤨣𤨤𤨥𤨦𤨧𤨨𤨩𤨪𤨾𤩂𤩅𤩊𤩎𤩏𤩐𤩑𤩝𤩥𤩦𤩧𤩱𤩷𤩸𤩹𤩺𤪌𤪓𤪔𤪕𤪖𤪤𤪥𤪦𤪧𤪱𤪲𤪳𤪺𤪻𤪼𤫀𤫇𤫊𤫑𤫟𤫢𤫩𤬏𤭮𤯵𤰉𤲞𤲟𤳉𤳙𤴆𤴓𤶸𤷪𤷫𤸻𤹐𤺥𤺧𤼎𤽜𤾂𤾆𤾗𤾚𤾩𤾸𤿂𥀬𥁒𥂝𥄫𥅈𥅽𥅾𥇍𥇣𥇦𥇧𥈠𥈡𥉐𥊙𥋇𥋘𥌎𥌑𥌓𥐙𥐥𥐯𥐰𥑆𥑬𥑮𥒚𥔱𥔵𥔿𥕛𥕜𥕝𥕞𥕥𥕦𥖁𥖄𥖏𥖹𥗕𥗛𥗠𥘅𥘵𥙑𥚃𥚕𥛣𥛶𥜆𥜝𥜥𥜽𥝲𥟇𥟟𥟠𥟡𥡗𥡝𥡲𥣈𥣞𥣡𥤃𥥆𥥖𥦬𥧌𥩔𥪕𥪜𥪮𥪯𥫩𥭴𥮉𥮳𥮴𥯆𥯤𥯨𥰁𥰆𥰡𥱊𥱥𥲑𥲤𥳀𥳁𥳾𥴠𥴰𥵃𥶙𥶹𥸎𥹉𥺁𥺂𥺃𥺦𥺼𥻘𥼚𥽋𥿡𥿢𦀡𦀩𦁈𦁤𦂃𦂗𦂤𦂥𦄂𦄡𦅙𦅚𦅛𦅜𦆭𦆮𦆲𦇝𦉘𦉡𦉪𦉫𦋐𦌵𦍋𦍌𦍑𦎾𦏵𦏸𦐂𦐐𦐑𦐒𦑊𦑩𦒄𦒈𦒉𦒘𦔒𦕲𦖠𦖭𦖿𦘒𦘦𦚯𦚱𦚵𦛚𦛨𦛼𦜖𦝁𦞙𦞳𦞴𦟌𦠜𦡆𦡞𦡮𦢈𦢊𦢓𦣇𦤎𦤑𦤦𦤹𦦨𦦵𦧲𦧺𦨭𦨮𦨴𦩂𦩑𦩒𦬅𦬊𦬓𦬕𦬣𦬨𦭐𦭑𦭒𦭓𦭛𦭵𦮂𦮖𦮗𦮝𦮳𦯀𦯷𦱀𦱁𦱆𦱾𦱿𦲀𦲁𦲂𦲤𦲷𦲸𦲽𦳀𦳃𦳑𦴢𦴣𦴤𦴥𦴦𦴧𦴨𦴩𦴪𦵑𦵴𦶠𦶡𦶢𦶣𦶤𦶥𦶦𦶧𦶮𦷜𦷪𦷫𦷰𦸀𦸅𦸇𦸒𦹂𦹃𦹄𦹅𦹮𦹲𦹷𦺄𦺈𦺋𦺙𦻐𦻑𦻒𦻓𦻔𦻕𦻖𦻗𦼦𦽳𦽴𦾟𦾡𦾾𦿞𦿟𧀎𧁋𧁒𧁓𧂈𧂭𧂮𧂯𧃍𧃒𧃰𧃸𧄉𧄌𧄍𧄦𧄧𧅤𧅥𧅵𧇍𧈛𧉧𧊀𧊅𧊋𧊲𧊶𧋦𧍒𧎚𧏿𧐢𧑐𧒄𧒆𧕴𧖣𧗠𧗤𧗽𧗾𧘇𧘌𧘲𧘹𧙕𧙖𧙗𧚔𧜏𧜵𧜶𧝁𧝞𧞄𧞅𧟌𧡘𧡰𧢝𧣈𧤤𧥧𧥺𧦠𧧝𧧽𧨊𧨎𧨾𧩓𧩙𧩹𧪄𧪽𧪾𧫴𧬆𧬋𧬘𧬸𧬹𧬺𧭈𧭥𧯯𧯴𧰒𧱬𧲱𧳅𧴯𧵓𧵔𧵦𧵳𧶄𧶏𧶘𧶽𧷜𧹍𧹏𧼮𨀂𨀉𨀞𨀣𨀤𨁈𨂃𨂐𨂽𨂾𨃨𨃩𨃴𨄮𨅏𨅝𨅯𨆉𨆯𨆼𨈇𨈘𨈚𨉖𨉼𨊛𨋍𨋢𨌆𨌘𨌯𨌺𨍥𨍭𨍽𨎊𨐒𨑨𨑬𨑳𨒂𨔁𨔼𨔽𨕬𨗨𨗴𨘀𨘋𨘥𨘻𨚪𨚫𨚲𨚼𨛘𨛦𨜏𨜓𨠄𨠫𨤍𨤳𨥈𨥉𨥖𨥤𨥨𨥬𨥭𨥾𨦉𨦨𨦪𨦫𨦸𨦼𨧀𨧜𨧞𨧡𨧣𨧤𨧧𨧨𨧹𨧺𨧻𨧼𨨏𨨖𨨥𨨩𨨲𨨶𨩄𨩅𨩆𨩇𨩈𨩉𨩊𨩋𨩙𨩚𨪁𨪂𨪃𨪚𨪛𨪜𨫀𨫆𨫋𨫌𨫎𨫞𨫟𨫠𨫡𨫢𨫣𨫥𨫪𨫼𨬌𨬓𨬡𨬢𨬫𨬬𨬭𨬯𨭆𨭌𨭎𨭐𨭣𨭤𨭥𨭦𨭬𨮏𨮙𨮜𨮝𨮹𨯂𨯅𨯔𨯗𨯙𨯚𨯧𨯨𨯩𨯪𨯫𨯬𨯵𨯿𨰃𨰉𨰜𨰝𨰣𨰦𨰫𨰰𨰹𨰻𨳊𨳍𨳒𨴴𨶙𨶹𨸶𨸹𨹥𨹦𨺗𨺬𨺲𨺳𨻙𨻧𨿅𩁹𩂈𩂋𩂓𩂯𩂰𩂱𩃀𩃤𩃥𩃬𩃭𩄍𩄐𩄼𩅍𩅛𩅞𩅰𩆜𩆨𩇕𩇫𩐝𩐠𩐳𩐿𩑈𩓐𩓙𩓚𩓥𩓧𩖞𩖰𩖸𩗗𩗩𩗴𩜠𩜲𩟔𩡗𩢤𩣑𩣪𩣱𩣺𩤃𩤅𩤯𩥅𩥇𩥈𩥉𩥝𩥪𩦝𩧃𩧉𩨨𩩍𩬅𩬎𩯕𩱳𩲭𩴾𩵚𩵼𩶘𩶛𩷶𩸆𩸭𩹨𩺬𩺰𩻃𩻸𩼣𩼰𩾷𩿞𪀔𪂇𪂹𪃡𪃭𪃳𪃸𪃾𪄇𪄣𪄳𪄴𪅐𪆒𪆓𪆫𪆴𪆵𪇟𪇵𪈠𪈳𪊓𪊟𪊲𪊴𪊶𪊺𪊽𪋟𪋿𪍑𪎩𪏭𪐴𪑛𪗆𪗋𪘁𪘲𪙊𪙛𪚩𪷿勇吆咢屮弢慈晉杞芳䕫蜨貫

思源繁體(台灣) 比 思源香港 多的中文字符,3 个

㫚櫓魯

思源香港 比 思源繁體 多的中文字符,13 个

岃滑龜奈老省糧劣料類慄梨泥

微软雅黑 比 思源简体 多的中文字符,26 个

䶶䶷䶸䶹䶺䶻䶼䶽䶾䶿鿰鿱鿲鿳鿴鿵鿶鿷鿸鿹鿺鿻鿼鿽鿾鿿

思源简体 比 微软雅黑 多的中文字符,125 个

豈更車賈串句喇奈洛珞落酪駱嵐來勞櫓爐盧老蘆路露魯鷺弄磊賂雷壘漏勒肋丹異北磻便復不葉沈若略梁糧量勵呂濾礪力曆歷年煉輦瑩靈醴僚尿料燎暈阮類律慄隆利吏履易梨泥理里林淋狀什刺拓洞暴輻行見隷勉勤卑嘆器墨漢爫碑艹艹𠂇𠂉𠃌𠘨𡗗𢦏𤇾𤈎𤣩𤨁𥫗𦥑𧢲𧺯𧾷𨸏𩙿𩠐𭕄巽拔𰻝𰻞𱁬

English speaking skills for PTE test

I shared my excitement about the PTE test result in the previous post. In this post, I will detail the English-speaking skills I learned during the three-month learning journey, which specifically meet the PTE test criteria.

PTE’s criteria

Let’s take a look at the two key criteria in the PTE’s speaking component: Pronunciation and Fluency.

Pronunciation and Oral fluency criteria of PTE test

Based on these criteria, I would like to highlight these key points:

Pronunciation:

  1. Vowels and consonants;
  2. Word stress;
  3. Sentence-level stress;
  4. Assimilation and deletions.

Fluency:

  1. Rhythm and phrasing;
  2. No hesitations.

As we can see, the PTE’s test criteria clearly show concepts we must fully understand and perfectly present if we want to achieve a higher score. In the following text, I will present my comprehension of these concepts, supported by related online resources.

Pronunciation

Vowels and consonants

In everyday conversations, sightly mispronounced words often do not significantly disrupt the flow of our discussion. But thanks to modern technology, PTE’s scoring is based on algorithms and is implemented by computers, which can easily detect each mispronunciation. Therefore, the ability to pronounce words clearly and accurately is crucial.

I have tried numerous methods to improve my pronunciation and reduce Chinese accent including speaking loudly, having more emotion, and directly imitating local accents. However, it didn’t work as expected, it did not meet my expectation, resulting in a low score in PTE practice.

Changes occurred the time I met Sun’s tutorials and BBC Learning English collection on YouTube. These pronunciation videos elaborate on vowel and consonant details, with vivid body language and emotion.

As non-native speakers who want to pronounce concisely, we must focus on these particular points:

Mouth Shape
We can try to imitate the mouth shape that vowels and consonants request. For example:

  1. When pronouncing /æ/ sounds like Agriculture and Activity, we should open our mouths as large as possible;
  2. When pronouncing /i:/ sounds like These and Feed, the corners of our mouths should be as far apart as possible.
Mouth Shapes of /æ/ and /i:/

Tongue Position
We should also pay attention to the tongue position. For example:

  1. The /θ/ sound requires us to extend the tongue forward;
  2. The /r/ sound requires us to pull the front part of the tongues back and up and keep the back stable, making our tongues fatter and thicker.
Tongue Position of /θ/ and /r/

Breath
We should also carefully control our breath, ensuring vowels and consonants are presented appropriately. For example:

  1. When pronouncing /θ/ like Through and Thesis, we should ensure that the airflow passes through the gap between our teeth and lips;
  2. When pronouncing /b/ and /p/ like Big and Picture, we should ensure that the airflow is completely blocked and then released suddenly.

Focusing on these points helps us ensure our study paths are on the right track, and consistently improve our pronunciation. In addition, there are two tips:

  1. Don’t try to imitate accents. The PTE test does not expect you to have a perfect British or American accent. For beginners, attempting to achieve such an accent is time-consuming and pointless.
  2. Never compare pronunciations between English and Chinese. For instance, the Cantonese pronunciation 士多啤梨 is often equated with Strawberry in English, which overlooks many nuances. Therefore, it is important to acknowledge that the pronunciation of English and Chinese words are completely different.

Online Resources:

Word stress

Each Chinese character has only one syllable, whereas English words typically consist of two or more syllables.

For example, the word water consists of two syllables: wa-ter, and phenomenon consists of five syllables: phe-nom-e-non. It depends on how many vowel sounds the word includes.

Syllable numbers of the word “the”, “water” and “phenomenon”

Furthermore, an English word consisting of two or more syllables includes both stressed syllables and unstressed syllables. These are indicated by the phonetic symbols found in dictionaries.

For example, the phonetic symbol of agri-cul-ture is /ˈæɡrɪ-kʌl-tʃər/, we can see the stress mark /'/ is placed in the first syllable /ˈæɡrɪ/, which known as a stressed syllable, while others are unstressed syllables.

Stressed syllable and unstressed syllables of the word “agriculture”;

An interesting rule to note is that the stressed syllable can be vary within the same word depending on its function in a sentence. For example:

  • When Project is acting as a noun, it is pronounced: /ˈprɑːdʒekt/
  • When Project is acting as a verb, it is pronounced: /prəˈdʒekt/

What should we do?
Pronounce each syllable with different efforts:

  1. Stressed syllables should be pronounced longer and louder;
  2. Unstressed syllables should be pronounced shorter and thinner, or take place from the Schwa (we will discuss it later.)

When training pronunciation, I strongly recommend exaggerating these nuances to ensure we are on the right track and fully comprehend this concept. Eventually, it should sound natural and require less effort.

Properly presenting word stress is key to making our speech more like English, and it can significantly help in shedding “Chinglish” tendencies.

Online Resources:

Sentence-level stress

To meet this criteria, there are two concepts we should understand: Content/Grammar Words and Stressed Words.

In the English world, there are two types of words within a sentence: Content words and Grammar words.

  1. Content words like nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs play an important role in sentence structure and convey main information.
  2. Grammar words like prepositions, auxiliary verbs, and articles are used to link content words to make a complete sentence, we can’t understand a sentence that only includes grammar words.
In the sentence “I would like to read books,” the content words are “I”, “like” “read” and “books”; while the grammar words are “would” and “to.”

In the sentence “I would like to read books,” the content words are I, like, read and books, they should be pronounced clearly and accurately, while would and to are grammar words, and they should be pronounced more softly than those content words.

The second point is to decide which words should be stressed. This is an easy-to-understand concept but hard to implement when we are facing a complex sentence. I will demonstrate it through Chinese examples:

Two examples of stressed word.

We stress some special words in our mother tongue subconsciously, furthermore, and this often influence the meaning.

For instance, we can express “There are beautiful flowers in the park.” in these different ways:

  1. There are beautiful flowers in the park.” We are pointing out the location;
  2. “There are beautiful flowers in the park.” We are emphasizing the flowers, not buildings or trees;
  3. “There are beautiful flowers in the park.” We are emphasizing the place where the beautiful flowers are located.

I suggest following general rules to avoid the potential risk of making mistakes and mispronunciation because the given text is unpredictable when we are sitting at the PTE test. Here are two steps for consideration:

1. Understanding the text.
Rather than speaking without consideration and comprehension, we should first grasp what ideas the writer attempting to convey before we open our mouths. Furthermore, analyzing the elements and structure of the sentence is crucial, including subjects, verbs, objects, content words, grammar words, and clauses.

2. Marking stressed words and unstressed words.
Generally, we stress one word in a phrase, choosing from a range of words, including objects, gerunds, passive verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Below are several examples from an actual test:

Globalisation refers to a set of changes rather than a single change.
In the sentence “Globalisation refers to a set of changes rather than a single change,” the stressed words are “set” and “single.”

Stress what authors attempt to emphasize. In this case, the author is declaring it is a set, not a single change.

You will be introduced briefly to the discipline of child psychology.
In the sentence “You will be introduced briefly to the discipline of child psychology,” the stressed words are “introduced,” “discipline,” and “child.”

We always stress adjectives and adverbs that modify a noun. If they are connected, stress the first one. Similarly, when facing a compound noun, we stress the first noun generally.

Although choosing the stressed words is subjective, they should be chosen from an appropriate scope that I mentioned before.

Online Resources:

Assimilation and deletions

These two concepts were the most interesting part of my learning journey. They make our English speaking vivid and dynamic.

Some voices can be transformed in specific circumstances. Below are several examples:

  1. Using the Schwa. Grammar words and articles can be reduced to a “Schwa sound”, such as “to” /tu/ becoming /tə/, and "than" /ðæn/ becoming /ðən/;
  2. Linking vowels. When a word ends with explosive sounds like /t/, /k/, and /p/ and the following word begins with a vowel sound, we link them together, such as that element becoming tha-telement;
  3. Inserting new sounds. When a word ends with a vowel sound and the following word begins with a vowel sound, we often insert a connecting sound. For instance: many of can be many jof.

There are lots of variations in pronunciation that we need to learn and practice. While this might feel overwhelming for some beginners, it is a vital part of speaking like a native and sounding natural. Keep learning from online resources and practice consistently until you feel comfortable.

Some voices can be dropped in specific circumstances. Below are several examples:

  1. Combining sounds. Link the same consonant sounds that are adjacent, such as in big garden, two /g/ sounds becoming one /g:/ sound but a bit longer;
  2. Dropping sounds. In a rapid speech, we sometimes drop explosive sounds between two consonants, such as an important role becomes an importan role;
  3. Holding sounds. Similarly, we hold back explosive sounds without fully releasing them when these sounds between a vowel and a consonant, such as that person becomes tha-person;
  4. Reducing /h/ sounds. When a word ends with explosive sounds and the following word begins with the /h/ sound, we always reduce the /h/ sound, such as "might have" becomes "migh-t(h)ave" and "an hour" becomes "a-nour."

Online Resources:

Fluency

Rhythm and phrasing

These two concepts are related to the term “Thought groups.” When speaking English, we always separate the sentences into several groups by their meanings, emotions, structures or lengths. Here is an example from the real test:

Two examples of separating sentences.
  1. Many papers you write in college / will require you to include quotes / from one or more sources.
  2. The speaker reminisces about his views / of the English Revolution / when he was a student.

In particular, we break sentences down before prepositions such as “of”, “in” and “that.” Importantly, we should NEVER separate compound words like “the English Revolution.”

Furthermore, I suggest breaking the sentence into smaller fragments for practice, like this:

An example of using high pitch and low pitch.
Many papers / you write in college / will require you / to include quotes / from one or more sources.

However, the PTE test would perfer a longer phrase, so I suggest that each group should have 4 to 7 words.

Now we know what is the term “Thought groups” and how to divide a sentence, the next step is to learn how to present it well. This related to the term ‘intonation and it means words pronounced in a high or low pitch accordingly and intermittently.

Intonation can bring rhythm to speaking, however, it is hard to handle and can cause trouble easily for beginners.

An example of using high pitch and low pitch.

What should we do?

  1. Always present a low pitch to the last word of a thought group and the sentence;
  2. Carefully present a slightly high pitch to the adjectives or adverbs that modify a noun or a noun phrase.

No hesitations

PTE test can detect any hesitation or mispronunciation which can negatively influence our final score, especially in the Read Aloud and Repeat Sentence module.

Despite numerous challenges on test day, such as being disrupted by other test-takers or encountering unfamiliar words, I strongly recommend speaking slowly and confidently to avoid potential risks and maintain fluency.

This strategy is crucial: when we face a word or phrase that is difficult to express and may cause hesitations unavoidably, this may affect our scores in both Pronunciation and Fluency. However, if we express these challenging words slowly and confidently, maintaining a natural flow, it might primarily affect our Pronunciation score.

This is why I strongly advocate for speaking confidently, even when making mistakes.

Summary

This article discusses the knowledge I gained on my English learning journey, including methods to improve pronunciation and an understanding of the PTE speaking module criteria.

Additionally, I’ve decided to update posts in English from now on. It may contain numerous grammatical errors, awkward phrasing and word-choice issues, it’s still a necessary step forward. ‘Practice makes perfect’ is the key lesson from this journey.

App 表单校验时机探索

动机

在我接手 App 这波需求迭代的时候,发现一个很常见的问题却没有在设计规范里提到过(其实原本也没啥设计规范…)。那就是:表单的校验时机。

工作中我发现每个保存到数据库的表单都会有至少一个校验规则,最常见的是字数,其他的有类似格式(邮箱、数量)、上下限(价格、库存数)等。而表单的校验时机通常是在三种方式内选择:

  1. 输入中校验;
  2. 失焦后校验;
  3. 提交时校验。

由于接手时并没有规范或者指引帮助我如何判断使用哪种,工期紧张也没有足够时间去探索,我只能拍脑袋地大部分都采取了「失焦后校验」的方法。

后面我发现这其中的差异还是挺耐人寻味的,有必要探索三者之间的各自优劣势和适用场景,于是乎就有了这篇文章。

三种校验时机的差异

输入中校验

效果:输入过程中(即文本有更改时)校验并反馈报错文案。
优点:实时反馈,出错后立即提示。
缺点:容易误判。即未完成输入就提示出错。

适用场景:
1. 纯前端能满足校验需求时;
2. 校验规则较严苛时,如一个表单多条校验规则,或中途某个错误字符直接影响到表单提交时。

修正错误的成本:低
在手机的的「键盘控件」内重新键入内容即可完成修正。

失焦后校验

效果:失去焦点后校验并反馈报错文案。
优点:输入过程中无干扰,在输入完成后再反馈报错文案。
缺点:失焦后才知道结果,修正成本高。

适用场景:
1. 纯前端能满足校验需求时;
2. 用户对输入框内容格式有预期时,如邮箱、手机号等。

修正错误的成本:高 ★★
需要先「失焦」,再回到原本的输入框「重新聚焦」,并通过「键盘控件」修正。

提交时检验

效果:提交表单时校验并反馈报错文案,通常会伴随着使用 Toast 提示。
优点:后端校验时,不影响性能&体验。
缺点:报错反馈很不及时。

适用场景:
1. 大部分需要后端校验的表单。

修正错误的成本:较高 ★★★
需要先「提交表单」,再「找到」出错的的输入框,并「重新聚焦」原本的输入框,通过「键盘控件」修正。

至此,上面列出了三种校验方式的各自优劣势,对比后不难得出结论。

结论

推荐优先使用「输入中校验」的规则。

原因:
1. 反馈最及时;
2. 修正错误的成本最低;
3. 对研发工作量和 App 性能无影响(前端校验时)。

理论支撑:

“理想情况下,所有验证都应该是内联的…”
“…在字段完成后立即修复错误对用户的交互成本最低…”
—— 来自 Nielsen Norman Group 的《如何反馈表单中的错误:10 条设计指南

通过这次的对比,我决定了之后都将「输入中校验」作为主要的校验方式,当然这种方式也有一些不适用的场景,此时就需要换一种校验方式。举例一些常见的不适合用「输入中校验」的表单:

  1. 容易误判的表单,如校验邮箱、电话、网址的格式时;
  2. 设置了数量下限时,如公司业务里的 B2B 商品设置了起批量时;
  3. 需要后端校验时,如需查重或对比数量上下限时。

其他感悟

对需要后端检验的表单态度

因为涉及到后端检验,意味着需要网络,那就会出现加载中/超时/加载失败/加载成功 的情况,所以这种表单一般是失焦后或提交时检验,这对输入体验会相对友好一些。

但也有例外,比如 Twitter 账号在重命名时,就使用的是输入中校验。可能是因为 Twitter 用户量庞大,特别容易重名。提交后检验反而效率更低。

输入前的体验设计

常言道好的体验设计能减少用户出错,在表单输入之前,实际上我们也可以用多种方式明示暗示文本框的填写规则。

一、输入框长度

输入框长度能过暗示文本框的预期填入内容。比如在填地址和邮编时,通常地址我们会预留比较宽的输入框给用户填写,而邮编则可以相应缩减,因为这两个类型的字段,预期填写的文本长度是有明显不同的。

参考资料:整齐划一?不如错落有致。| Ant Design 4.0 系列分享

二、实时字数显示

在输入框旁边实时展示当前字数和上限是也是比较常见的做法。
优点:避免出错;让用户对表单的规则有一个预期。
缺点:页面出现过多此类提示会使页面臃肿,反而会增加视觉&认知负荷。

所以我对这个做法的态度是:每个表单都会有文字输入的上限,超过上限时也一定会禁止提交、出现提示。但是否将字数提示常驻展示,取决于「用户对长度是否有预期」。

比如在一些备注、描述、说明等大段文字里,用户可能会输入到大段文本,但又对这些输入框的上限没有预期,那我这里判断到是需要出现实时字数提示的。而像比如填写姓名、添加标签这种,字数上限只是一个兜底的判断逻辑,不需要特意暴露出来。

另外可以根据存量数据来决定是否展示实时字数提示。比如让后端同事帮忙导出在数据库里的数据,能知道用户在这个输入框里一般会填写多少个字,如果大部分情况都是接近字数上限的,意味着用户在这个输入框会输入较多的文本,此时就需要展示当前字数上限,甚至或者调整校验规则。这是我在上一家公司(千聊)里做过的事情。

三、占位符(Placeholder)

无论是 NNGROUP 还是 Shopify UX,都对占位符文本持有比较谨慎的态度,甚至会用到 Harmful、Avoid 等贬义词。他们主要批判的是用占位符代替标签的做法,我们在使用时避免这种用法就好了。

实际上占位符和标签共同使用时没什么毛病,占位符确实能起到一定的补充作用,用来提示要输入内容的类型和名称,只是不要用来展示重要内容和代替掉标签就好了。合理使用也是减少用户出错的方式之一。

四、常驻帮助文本(Help text)

帮助文本可以视为占位符的进阶版,具体效果在输入框附近常驻一段简短、必要的说明内容,帮助商家了解输入框所要求的格式,或输入后的内容会怎么处理。甚至还可以链接到 FAQ,有丰富的用法。

一条原则

在文本有上限的输入框里,我们会面临一个选择是:超过字数后是否允许输入?

我在这里的建议是允许继续输入,同时会出现报错的反馈,告知规则。因为翻查了很多 UX 资料,都建议在设计中要避免「打断了用户行为」。下面放出两种方法的优劣对比,各位看官理性抉择:

超上限后允许继续输入
效果:输入的文本超过该文本框校验规则上限时,出现报错反馈,同时也可以继续输入文本。
优点:反馈及时,原因清晰。
缺点:🤔…

到达上限后禁止输入
效果:输入的文本到达该文本框校验规则的上限时,禁止输入更多的文字了。
优点:🤔…
缺点:没有反馈,不知道错误原因。

这么看下来,就体验而言是「超出上限后允许继续输入」要好很多。而且这种方法还照顾到一个场景是:允许用户在输入中发现超出长度后,把当前的单词输入完整后再去删减其他内容。

当然毫无疑问,到达上限后直接不允许输入是对设计和研发来说最省力的做法。这种做法下不用反馈,也就不需要做反馈时机的决策、反馈的文案及多语言、文本的适配、反馈后的布局适配…

我有一段经历是项目工期巨紧张,规范也没相关的指引。当时有很多比制定文本输入规则还重要的事情需要处理,于是乎我就都一拍脑袋用了「达上限后禁止输入」的方法。

后面与其他方式对比发现这种做法应该是体验比较差的做法了。像现在我把规范做法加进 App 设计的指引里面之后,就大多数情况下都会使用「允许继续输入,在输入中反馈」的方式实现。

结语

以上内容就是目前来说我对文本框校验规则的一些认识,包含了各种校验时机的对比,输入前的体验设计,以及不打断用户操作的原则。

这次的总结是我挺久之前就想干的事情了,因为平常工作中一直遇到这种问题,也没有一个明确的设计指引能够参考,现在自己写下来这篇笔记之后,之后的设计方案会考虑得更周全,说服力也更强了(希望是吧)…

同时再浅挖一个坑:之后要探索下表单提交按钮相关知识,比如说什么时候要禁用按钮,什么时候是允许点击但报错等等,这个应该还要复杂一点…

参考资料

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